nature

The natural sciences are those branches of science that seek to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world through scientific methods.[1] The term "natural science" is used to distinguish the subject from the social sciences, which apply the scientific method to study human behavior and social patterns; the humanities, which use a critical or analytical approach to study the human condition; and the formal sciences such as mathematics and logic, which use an a priori, as opposed to factual methodology to study formal systems.he term "natural science" is used to distinguish them from the formal sciences such as mathematics and logic, studying the properties of theoretical models themselves; from the humanities, which critically compare different artifacts of human culture and different cultures themselves; as well as from social sciences, including economics, which seek to construct simplified quantitative rules governing complex human behavior and social patterns.

There are five branches of natural science: astronomy, biology, chemistry, the Earth sciences and physics.[2][3] This distinguishes sciences that cover inquiry into the world of nature from humanities such as linguistics, anthropology, literary science, and from formal sciences such as mathematics and logic.[2] Despite their differences, these sciences sometimes overlap. For example, the social sciences and biology both study human beings as organisms while mathematics is used regularly in all the natural sciences.[2]

Alongside its traditional usage, natural science may encompass natural history, which emerged in the 16th century and focused on the description and classification of plants, animals, minerals and other natural objects.[4] Today, natural history refers to observational descriptions of the natural world aimed at popular audiences rather than an academic ones.[5] The natural sciences are sometimes referred to colloquially as hard science, or fields seen as relying on experimental, quantifiable data or the scientific method and focusing on accuracy and objectivity.[6] These usually include physics, chemistry and biology.[6] By contrast, soft science is used as a pejorative term to describe fields more reliant on qualitative research, including the social sciences.[6]

History[edit]

See also: Natural philosophy and History of science
Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival.[7] People observed and built up knowledge about the behavior of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation.[7] These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3,500 to 3,000 B.C. in Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy, the precursor of natural science.[8] While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was in all cases religious or mythological, not scientific.[9]

A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China, where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments.[10] They focused on the yin and yang, or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth.[11] The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. Water turned into wood, which turned into fire when it burned. The ashes left by fire were earth.[12] Using these principles, Chinese philosophers and doctors explored human anatomy, characterizing organs as predominantly yin or yang; they understood the relationship between the pulse, the heart and the flow of blood in the body centuries before it became accepted in the West.[13]

Little evidence survives of how Ancient Indian cultures around the Indus River understood nature, but some of their perspectives may be reflected in the Vedas, a set of sacred Hindu texts.[13] They reveal a conception of the universe as ever-expanding and constantly being recycled and reformed.[13] Surgeons in the Ayurvedic tradition saw health and illness as a combination of three humors: wind, bile and phlegm.[13] A healthy life was the result of a balance between these humors.[13] In Ayurvedic thought, the body consisted of five elements: earth, water, fire, wind and empty space.[13] Ayurvedic surgeons performed complex surgeries and developed a detailed understanding of human anatomy.[13]

Pre-Socratic philosophers in Ancient Greek culture brought natural philosophy a step closer to direct inquiry about cause and effect in nature between 600 and 400 B.C., although an element of magic and mythology remained.[14] Natural phenomena such as earthquakes and eclipses were explained increasingly in the context of nature itself instead of being attributed to angry gods.[14] Thales of Miletus, an early philosopher who lived from 625 to 546 B.C., explained earthquakes by theorizing that the world floated on water and that water was the fundamental element in nature.[15] In the fifth century B.C., Leucippus was an early exponent of atomism, the idea that the world is made up of fundamental indivisible particles.[16] Pythagoras applied Greek innovations in mathematics to astronomy, and suggested that the earth was spherical.[16]

Aristotelian natural philosophy (400 B.C.–1100 A.D.)[edit]
Later Socratic and Platonic thought focused on ethics, morals and art and did not attempt an investigation of the physical world; Plato criticized pre-Socratic thinkers as materialists and anti-religionists.[17] Aristotle, however, a student of Plato who lived from 384 to 322 B.C., paid closer attention to the natural world in his philosophy.[18] In his History of Animals, he described the inner workings of 110 species, including the stingray, catfish and bee.[19] He investigated chick embryos by breaking open eggs and observing them at various stages of development.[20] Aristotle's works were influential through the 19th century, and he is considered by some scholars to be the father of biology.[21] He also presented philosophies about physics, nature and astronomy using inductive reasoning in his works Physics and Meteorology.[22]



Plato (left) and Aristotle in a 1509 painting by Raphael. Plato rejected inquiry into natural philosophy as against religion, while his student, Aristotle, created a body of work on the natural world that influenced generations of scholars.
While Aristotle considered natural philosophy more seriously than his predecessors, he approached it as a theoretical branch of science.[23] Still, inspired by his work, Ancient Roman philosophers of the early first century A.D., including Lucretius, Seneca and Pliny the Elder, wrote treatises that dealt with the rules of the natural world in varying degrees of depth.[24] Many Ancient Roman Neoplatonists of the third to the sixth centuries A.D. also adapted Aristotle's teachings on the physical world to a philosophy that emphasized spiritualism.[25] Early medieval philosophers including Macrobius, Calcidius and Martianus Capella also examined the physical world, largely from a cosmological and cosmographical perspective, putting forth theories on the arrangement of celestial bodies and the heavens, which were posited as being composed of aether.[26]

Aristotle's works on natural philosophy continued to be translated and studied amid the rise of the Byzantine Empire and Islam in the Middle East.[27] A revival in mathematics and science took place during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate from the ninth century onward, when Muslim scholars expanded upon Greek and Indian natural philosophy.[28] The words alcohol, algebra and zenith all have Arabic roots.[29]

Medieval natural philosophy (1100–1600)[edit]
Aristote's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin.[30] The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy.[31] European inventions such as the horseshoe, horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England.[32] Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic.[33] This approach, however, was seen by some detractors as heresy.[33] By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars.[34] Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy.[34] These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by the early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church.[35] A 1210 decree from the Synod of Paris ordered that "no lectures are to be held in Paris either publicly or privately using Aristotle's books on natural philosophy or the commentaries, and we forbid all this under pain of excommunication."[35]

In the late Middle Ages, Spanish philosopher Dominicus Gundissalinus translated a treatise by the earlier Arab scholar Al-Farabi called On the Sciences into Latin, calling the study of the mechanics of nature scientia naturalis, or natural science.[36] Gundissalinus also proposed his own classification of the natural sciences in his 1150 work On the Division of Philosophy.[36] This was the first detailed classification of the sciences based on Greek and Arab philosophy to reach Western Europe.[36] Gundissalinus defined natural science as "the science considering only things unabstracted and with motion," as opposed to mathematics and sciences that rely on mathematics.[37] Following Al-Farabi, he then separated the sciences into eight parts, including physics, cosmology, meteorology, minerals science and plant and animal science.[37]

Later philosophers made their own classifications of the natural sciences. Robert Kilwardby wrote On the Order of the Sciences in the 13th century that classed medicine as a mechanical science, along with agriculture, hunting and theater while defining natural science as the science that deals with bodies in motion.[38] Roger Bacon, an English friar and philosopher, wrote that natural science dealt with "a principle of motion and rest, as in the parts of the elements of fire, air, earth and water, and in all inanimate things made from them."[39] These sciences also covered plants, animals and celestial bodies.[39] Later in the 13th century, Catholic priest and theologian Thomas Aquinas defined natural science as dealing with "mobile beings" and "things which depend on matter not only for their existence, but also for their definition."[40] There was wide agreement among scholars in medieval times that natural science was about bodies in motion, although there was division about the inclusion of fields including medicine, music and perspective.[41] Philosophers pondered questions including the existence of a vacuum, whether motion could produce heat, the colors of rainbows, the motion of the earth, whether elemental chemicals exist and where in the atmosphere rain is formed.[42]

In the centuries up through the end of the Middle Ages, natural science was often mingled with philosophies about magic and the occult.[43] Natural philosophy appeared in a wide range of forms, from treatises to encyclopedias to commentaries on Aristotle.[44] The interaction between natural philosophy and Christianity was complex during this period; some early theologians, including Tatian and Eusebius, considered natural philosophy an outcropping of pagan Greek science and were suspicious of it.[45] Although some later Christian philosophers, including Aquinas, came to see natural science as a means of interpreting scripture, this suspicion persisted until the 12th and 13th centuries.[46] The Condemnation of 1277, which forbade setting philosophy on a level equal with theology and the debate of religious constructs in a scientific context, showed the persistence with which Catholic leaders resisted the development of natural philosophy even from a theological perspective.[47] Aquinas and Albertus Magnus, another Catholic theologian of the era, sought to distance theology from science in their works.[48] "I don't see what one's interpretation of Aristotle has to do with the teaching of the faith," he wrote in 1271.[49]

Newton and the scientific revolution (1600–1800)[edit]
By the 16th and 17th centuries, natural philosophy underwent an evolution beyond commentary on Aristotle as more early Greek philosophy was uncovered and translated.[50] The invention of the printing press in the 1400s, the invention of the microscope and telescope, and the Protestant Reformation fundamentally altered the social context in which scientific inquiry evolved in the West.[50] Christopher Columbus's discovery of a new world changed perceptions about the physical makeup of the world, while observations by Copernicus, Tyco Brahe and Galileo brought a more accurate picture of the solar system as heliocentric and proved many of Aristotle's theories about the heavenly bodies false.[51] A number of 17th-century philosophers, including Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Francis Bacon made a break from the past by rejecting Aristotle and his medieval followers outright, calling their approach to natural philosophy as superficial.[52]

The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favor of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world.[53] Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature.[54] To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with new discoveries and powers."[55] He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible."[53] Bacon proposed scientific inquiry supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition and form at the time.[55] Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock.[56] Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation.[57] Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged and were spread widely through the printing press, touching off the scientific revolution.[58] Newton in 1687 published his The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or Principia Mathematica, which set the groundwork for physical laws that remained current until the 19th century.[59]

Some modern scholars, including Andrew Cunningham, Perry Williams and Floris Cohen, argue that natural philosophy is not properly called a science, and that genuine scientific inquiry began only with the scientific revolution.[60] According to Cohen, "the emancipation of science from an overarching entity called 'natural philosophy' is one defining characteristic of the Scientific Revolution."[60] Other historians of science, including Edward Grant, contend that the scientific revolution that blossomed in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries occurred when principles learned in the exact sciences of optics, mechanics and astronomy began to be applied to questions raised by natural philosophy.[60] Grant argues that Newton attempted to expose the mathematical basis of nature – the immutable rules it obeyed – and in doing so joined natural philosophy and mathematics for the first time, producing an early work of modern physics.[61]



Isaac Newton is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time.
The scientific revolution, which began to take hold in the 1600s, represented a sharp break from Aristotelian modes of inquiry.[62] One of its principal advances was the use of the scientific method to investigate nature. Data was collected and repeatable measurements made in experiments.[63] Scientists then formed hypotheses to explain the results of these experiments.[64] The hypothesis was then tested using the principle of falsifiability to prove or disprove its accuracy.[64] The natural sciences continued to be called natural philosophy, but the adoption of the scientific method took science beyond the realm of philosophical conjecture and introduced a more structured way of examining nature.[62]

Newton, an English mathematician and physicist, was the seminal figure in the scientific revolution.[65] Drawing on advances made in astronomy by Copernicus, Brahe and Kepler, Newton derived the universal law of gravitation and laws of motion.[66] These laws applied both on earth and in outer space, uniting two spheres of the physical world previously thought to function independently of each other, according to separate physical rules.[67] Newton, for example, showed that the tides were caused by the gravitational pull of the moon.[68] Another of Newton's advances was to make mathematics a powerful explanatory tool for natural phenomena.[69] While natural philosophers had long used mathematics as a means of measurement and analysis, its principles were not used as a means of understanding cause and effect in nature until Newton.[69]

In the 1700s and 1800s, scientists including Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday built upon Newtonian mechanics by exploring electromagnetism, or the interplay of forces with positive and negative charges on electrically charged particles.[70] Faraday proposed that forces in nature operated in "fields" that filled space.[71] The idea of fields contrasted with the Newtonian construct of gravitation as simply "action at a distance", or the attraction of objects with nothing in the space between them to intervene.[71] James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century unified these discoveries in a coherent theory of electrodynamics.[70] Using mathematical equations and experimentation, Maxwell discovered that space was filled with charged particles that could act upon themselves and each other, and that they were a medium for the transmission of charged waves.[70]

Significant advances in chemistry also took place during the scientific revolution. Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, refuted the phlogiston theory, which posited that things burned by releasing "phlogiston" into the air.[71] Joseph Priestley had discovered oxygen in the 1700s, but Lavoisier discovered that combustion was the result of oxidation.[71] He also constructed a table of 33 elements and invented modern chemical nomenclature.[71] Formal biological science remained in its infancy in the 18th century, when the focus lay upon the classification and categorization of natural life. This growth in natural history was led by Carolus Linnaeus, whose 1735 taxonomy of the natural world is still in use. Linnaeus in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.[72]

19th-century developments (1800–1900)[edit]


The Michelson–Morley experiment was used to disprove that light propagated through a luminiferous aether. This 19th-century concept was then superseded by Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity.
By the 19th century, the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions. In so doing, it gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science. The term scientist was coined by William Whewell in an 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Sciences.[73] But the word did not enter general use until nearly the end of the same century.

Modern natural science (1900–present)[edit]
According to a famous 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by the American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis and the American physical chemist Merle Randall,[74] the natural sciences contain three great branches:

Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics.[75]

Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology; and physical sciences, which include physics, chemistry, geology and astronomy.

Branches of natural science[edit]

Biology[edit]
Main article: Biology


A fragment of DNA, the chemical sequence that contains genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms
This field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies. Biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment.

The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to early periods of civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole.

Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics; Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection; the germ theory of disease and the application of the techniques of chemistry and physics at the level of the cell or organic molecule.

Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, physiology looks at the internal structure of organism, while ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate.

Chemistry[edit]
Main article: Chemistry


This structural formula for molecule caffeine shows a graphical representation of how the atoms are arranged.
Constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms for use in larger-scale applications.

Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "the central science" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.

Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass.

The discovery of the chemical elements and the concept of Atomic Theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy.

Materials science[edit]
Main article: Materials science
Originally developed through the field of metallurgy, the study of the properties of materials has now expanded into many materials other than metals. The field covers the chemistry, physics and engineering applications of materials including metals, ceramics, artificial polymers, and many others.

Physics[edit]
Main article: Physics


The orbitals of the hydrogen atom are descriptions of the probability distributions of an electron bound to a proton. Their mathematical descriptions are standard problems in quantum mechanics, an important branch of physics.
Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science, because all other natural sciences use and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulation and quantification of principles.

The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with philosophy gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation and classical mechanics, an understanding of electricity and its relation to magnetism, Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, the development of thermodynamics, and the quantum mechanical model of atomic and subatomic physics.

The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies as quantum mechanics and theoretical physics, applied physics and optics. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein and Lev Landau, who worked in multiple areas.

Astronomy[edit]
Main article: Astronomy


Space missions have been used to image distant locations within the Solar System, such as this Apollo 11 view of Daedalus crater on the far side of the Moon.
This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.

Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars, planets, comets, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomenon has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium).

While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomenon can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail.

The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into a formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.



Earth science[edit]
Main article: Earth science
Earth science (also known as geoscience), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth, including geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, physical geography, oceanography, and soil science.

Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly palaeontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics, in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to petroleum and mineral resources, climate research and to environmental assessment and remediation.

Atmospheric science[edit]
Main article: Atmospheric sciences
Though sometimes considered in conjunction with the earth sciences, due to the independent development of its concepts, techniques and practices and also the fact of it having a wide range of sub disciplines under its wing, the atmospheric science is also considered a separate branch of natural science. This field studies the characteristics of different layers of the atmosphere from ground level to the edge of the time. The timescale of study also varies from days to centuries. Sometimes the field also includes the study of climatic patterns on planets other than earth.

Oceanography[edit]
Main article: Oceanography
The serious study of oceans began in the early to mid-1900s. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences or as a separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state that it has its own paradigms and practices. As such a big family of related studies spanning every aspect of the oceans is now classified under this field.

Interdisciplinary studies[edit]

The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp, and they share a number of cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by astrophysics, geophysics, chemical physics and biophysics. Likewise chemistry is represented by such fields as biochemistry, geochemistry and astrochemistry.

A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is environmental science. This field studies the interactions of physical, chemical, geological, and biological components of the environment, with a particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on biodiversity and sustainability. This science also draws upon expertise from other fields such as economics, law and social sciences.

A comparable discipline is oceanography, as it draws upon a similar breadth of scientific disciplines. Oceanography is sub-categorized into more specialized cross-disciplines, such as physical oceanography and marine biology. As the marine ecosystem is very large and diverse, marine biology is further divided into many subfields, including specializations in particular species.

There are also a subset of cross-disciplinary fields which, by the nature of the problems that they address, have strong currents that run counter to specialization. Put another way: In some fields of integrative application, specialists in more than one field are a key part of most dialog. Such integrative fields, for example, include nanoscience, astrobiology, and complex system informatics.

In physics, there are some natural laws, but many scientific
theories. There are also rather interpretations, opinions and
hypotheses on which these theories are based on.

If we leave aside the theories and the various opinions and
interpretations as "man's work", then only the laws of nature
will remain. The empirically confirmed and universally valid
laws of nature do explain the relationships and
interrelationships of physical phenomena. However, there is
a problem: they contain partially natural constants that only
can be determined by measurement. While describing the
processes of nature, one will encounter physical constants,
whose values can be measured, but so far no one knows what
they are to be attributed to.

The secrets of the universe are thus hidden in the constants
of nature. Consequently, many well-known physicists had
the desire to derive the number of fundamental constants
from a single constant.

There are over a hundred fundamental constants, but only
about two dozen of them are elementary, and the rest can be
derived from them. After the discovery of the final formula I
have therefore derived the basic constants of nature,
because it is possible to explain the entire universe with
them. The derived constants of nature have been selected
after careful consideration, and as we shall see later, even
these fundamental constants of nature are based on a single
number, namely the elementary constant.

Einstein also was dissatisfied with the constants of nature,
and he has described it as follows: "... I cannot compellingly
think of any reasonable and consistent theory that
explicitly contains one number which could also have been
chosen as another number by the whim of the Creator,
where the world qualitatively would have been represented
in a different way in its laws. "

For Einstein, the most elementary constants of nature such
as the speed of light, gravitational constant and the Planck
quantum of action were not really fundamental, because
their value still depends on "conventional" units. Only if it
could be succeed to create one quantity from several
constants that is a pure numerical value without unit of
measurement, then a universal constant would exist
according to Einstein's view. However the numerical value of
this universal, absolute constant should be determined by
the logical basis of the physical theory.

The number square root of 10 in the final formula is the
universal elementary constant, and we will gradually learn
their special characteristics in the following chapters.

The below listed nature constants and some important
physical quantities have been derived with the final formula.
As we are going to see, all fundamental constants in physics
can be attributed to a single number as the elementary
constant.

  - speed of light
  - reduced Planck quantum
  - Planck length
  - Planck time
  - elementary charge
  - electron mass
  - quantized charge
  - quantized mass
  - gravitationnel constant
  - proton mass
  - proton radius
  - fine structure constant
  - classical electron radius
  - acceleration of gravity


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Foreword

The fascinating thing about the universe is its space with the immense micro- and macrocosm size. Not only in the
macrocosm between planets, solar systems and galaxies, but also in the microcosm in the atoms and its components is the
“empty space” is the decisive element. Therefore, one must first of all understand the “empty” space of which it mainly
consists in order to be able to understand the universe as a whole.

It is known that the “empty” space in fact is not empty but contains virtual particles, ominous dark matter and dark
energy.
· However, what are the empty space and thus the entire universe?
· What is energy, mass, charge? What do they consist of? 
· Why is the speed of light constant?
· Is it possible to derive the constants of nature?
· Does a Theory of everything exist?

Inter aila, we will have a look on these questions and solve some other mysteries of the universe. Thereby, new questions
and new mysteries will arise, but we will see that the universe, made up of space, time and energy is made up in an
unprecedented form.

The new world model is a theory which currently is in development, some of the results and the "final formula" hereby is
published. In this edition, I am handling the key aspects of the new model of the world. Based on equations derived from
fundamental physical constants of nature that play a central role in physics, I will demonstrate that it is possible to explain
the entire universe with a brief "final formula". With the aid of the final formula, we also will experience how time works and
how the three-dimensional space is created.

Many smart people have tried for a long time to derive all physical properties of the universe from a single formula.
However so far, all attempts have failed. It seems that the reason for this failure was the imperfection of the existing
theories. Viewing the universe from a different perspective and leaving the assigned paths of the previous theories, we at
least reach a world model with a final formula. With this book it is demonstrated how to explain the recent recognitions in
physics also from another perspective. Accordingly, modern physics is completed and enhanced. 

I have not searched for the final formula, I discovered it by chance, just like Archimedes who discovered buoyancy force in
the bathtub or Newton, who discovered the gravitational force under an apple tree. Afterwards, I made some calculations
with the final formula and have seen with a great astonishment, that the entire universe can be explained with this formula.  

Also some problems with previous theories will be highlighted in this book:

·  Newton believed that it was gravity which holds together the universe. Even today many people believe in this but no
one is able to explain what actually causes gravity. Thanks to the Final formula we are able to solve the mystery of gravity
and based on the derived gravitational constant we will be able to learn how it works.

·  Einstein could not exactly explain space and time although his famous theories were based on it. He summarized these
as “Spacetime” and assumed that the space bended itself. With the final formula we now can reveal the great secrets of
space and time.

·  Planck discovered the quantum of action and accordingly laid the foundation for quantum physics. However, his
quantized quantities do include the gravitational constant and are therefore useless, as we shall see in the appropriate
section.

But, dealing with the universe, the more clearly one recognizes the outstanding achievements of the researchers at that
times of period. They do not lose at any way authority, on the contrary, only thanks to their intellectual achievements; we
are now able to continue their scientific heritage. However, every theory becomes outdated over time through new
knowledge, and accordingly, science develops more and more.

The individual chapters and sections in this book are based on each. We will first start with the smallest dimension in the
microcosm and, in the penultimate chapter will try to describe some structures in the macrocosm. Since everything in
the universe depends on one another, it is inevitable that one can understand much better the new world
model and the final formula, after reading the whole book. Because, much more things will be more
understandable in the overall context.